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Main article:The Vedas are among the. The Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BCE, and the 'circum-Vedic' texts, as well as the of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000–500 BCE, resulting in a, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the and the.The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various all over Northern India which annotated the mantra with discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of and and the rise of the (archaeologically, ). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.
Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern of the 14th century BCE, the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE as a for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early ) as for the Atharvaveda.Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate. A literary tradition is traceable in post-Vedic times, after the rise of in the, perhaps earliest in the recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition of transmission remained active. Witzel suggests the possibility of written Vedic texts towards the end of 1st millennium BCE. Some scholars such as Jack Goody state that 'the Vedas are not the product of an oral society', basing this view by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbia and other cultures, then noting that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down.
However, adds Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling it a 'parallel products of a literate society'.Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years. The has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in that are dated from the 11th century onwards. Ancient universitiesThe Vedas, Vedic rituals and its ancillary sciences called the, were part of the curriculum at ancient universities such as at,. Categories of Vedic texts.The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold ( turīya) viz.,. (RV).
(YV, with the main division vs. ).
(SV). (AV)Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called ' trayī vidyā'; that is, 'the triple science' of reciting hymns (Rigveda), performing sacrifices (Yajurveda), and chanting songs (Samaveda). The Rigveda is the oldest work, which Witzel states are probably from the period of 1900 to 1100 BCE. Witzel, also notes that it is the Vedic period itself, where incipient lists divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the (mantras and benedictions), the (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn baby's rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retirement and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices), the (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars as the fifth part. Notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area, and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras.Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have survived into the modern era.
Several different versions of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known, and many different versions of the Yajur Veda have been found in different parts of South Asia. (Hymn of non-Eternity):Who really knows?Who can here proclaim it?Whence, whence this creation sprang?Gods came later, after the creation of this universe.Who then knows whence it has arisen?Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute;Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows,He only knows, or perhaps He does not know.— 10.129.6–7The is the oldest extant text. It is a collection of 1,028 and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas). The hymns are dedicated to.The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries from roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE (the early ), starting with the region of the northwest.
The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles – the Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra, and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each deity series, the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, but the number of hymns per book increases. Finally, the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses. In terms of substance, the nature of hymns shift from praise of deities in early books to with questions such as, 'what is the origin of the universe?, do even gods know the answer?' , the virtue of (charity) in society, and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions. Main article:The consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda. The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक).
A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the arcika books. Just as in the Rigveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with hymns to Agni and Indra but shift to the abstract.
Their meters shift also in a descending order. The songs in the later sections of the Samaveda have the least deviation from the hymns derived from the Rigveda.In the Samaveda, some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith. Two major recensions have survived, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya.
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Its purpose was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the or 'singer' priests. A page from the Taittiriya Samhita, a layer of text within the YajurvedaThe earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in. Unlike the Samaveda which is almost entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose and linguistically, they are different from earlier Vedic texts. The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals.There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the 'Black' ( Krishna) and the 'White' ( Shukla).
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The term 'black' implies 'the un-arranged, motley collection' of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the 'white' (well arranged) Yajurveda. The White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the ), the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary.
Of the Black Yajurveda, texts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), while of the White Yajurveda, two (Kanva and Madhyandina). The youngest layer of Yajurveda text is not related to rituals nor sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of. Further information:The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the four Vedas. They also incorporate myths, legends and in some cases philosophy. Each regional Vedic (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost. A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with the, six with the, ten with the and one with the. The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the ), were complete by about 700 BCE.
According to, the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).The substance of the Brahmana text varies with each Veda. For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight ritual suktas (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child. The first hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering a oblation to Agni (fire) on the occasion of a marriage, and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple getting married. The second hymn wishes for their long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny. The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves to each other. The sixth through last hymns of the first chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are ritual celebrations on the birth of a child and wishes for health, wealth, and prosperity with a profusion of cows.
However, these verses are incomplete expositions, and their complete context emerges only with the Samhita layer of text. Aranyakas and Upanishads. Further information:, andThe Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, discussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical speculations.Aranyakas, however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure. They are a medley of instructions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads within them. Two theories have been proposed on the origin of the word Aranyakas. One theory holds that these texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other holds that the name came from these being the manuals of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those in (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life, according to the historic age-based system of human life.The Upanishads reflect the last composed layer of texts in the Vedas.
They are commonly referred to as, variously interpreted to mean either the 'last chapters, parts of the Vedas' or 'the object, the highest purpose of the Veda'. The concepts of (Ultimate Reality) and (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the, and 'Know your Ātman' their thematic focus. The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have influenced the diverse traditions of Hinduism.Aranyakas are sometimes identified as karma-kanda (ritualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified as jnana-kanda (spirituality section).
In an alternate classification, the early part of Vedas are called and the commentary are called the which together are identified as the ceremonial karma-kanda, while Aranyakas and Upanishads are referred to as the jnana-kanda. Post-Vedic literature Vedanga. Main article:The Vedangas developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after the middle of the 1st millennium BCE.
These auxiliary fields of Vedic studies emerged because the language of the Vedas, composed centuries earlier, became too archaic to the people of that time. The Vedangas were sciences that focused on helping understand and interpret the Vedas that had been composed many centuries earlier.The six subjects of Vedanga are phonetics , poetic meter , grammar , etymology and linguistics , rituals and rites of passage , time keeping and astronomy.Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters, structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools of. The Kalpa Vedanga studies, for example, gave rise to the Dharma-sutras, which later expanded into Dharma-shastras.
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Main article:The Puranas is a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas), with over 400,000 verses.The Puranas have been influential in the culture. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature). The has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of tenor.
The Puranic literature wove with the in India, and both and scholars have commented on the underlying Vedanta themes in the Maha Puranas. Western Indology. Further information:The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century, drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads.The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for was also recognized in the early 19th century.English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in the series edited by between 1879 and 1910.also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899.regarded Vedas to be exceptional, he remarked that:The Veda was the most precious gift for which the West had ever been indebted to the East.Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in 's in 2007. See also.Notes. 'As a skilled craftsman makes a car, a singer I, Mighty One! This hymn for thee have fashioned.
If thou, O Agni, God, accept it gladly, may we obtain thereby the heavenly Waters'. – Rigveda 5.2.11, Translated by Ralph T.H.
Griffith. Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological authority by a Hindu orthodox school; (Note: This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions). The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first Pali Canon written many centuries after the death of the Buddha.References.
